Preface

Scope

Why this book

What this book is

What this book is not

Intended audience

Orientation

The most important point

About

About this book

About me

About my company

About the contributors

1 Fundamental concepts

1.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

1.2 Power conversion

1.2.1 AC to DC: chargers and power supplies

1.2.2 DC to DC: DC chargers and DC-DC converters

Charger with DC input

1.2.3 DC to AC: inverters

Inverter

1.2.4 Bidirectional AC and DC: Invergers and AC motor drivers

Inverger (charger / inverter, “combi”)

AC motor driver for traction

1.2.5 Any direction: Transverters

Transverter

1.2.6 Schematic diagrams symbols

1.3 Terminology and misnomers

1.3.1 Cell vs battery

1.3.2 Anode and cathode

1.3.3 Lithium vs Li-ion

1.3.4 “LiPo”

1.3.5 Li-ion vs LiFePO4 or other chemistry

1.3.6 “C-rating”

1.4 Common misunderstandings

1.4.1 Charging while discharging

1.4.2 The loads sets the current

1.4.3 No voltage across switch

1.4.4 Confused measures

1.5 Measures

1.5.1 Resistance and impedance [Ω]

Ohm's law

1.5.2 Voltage [V]

1.5.3 Charge, capacity [Ah]

Charge

Capacity

Nominal cell capacity

Actual cell capacity

Effective cell capacity

Effective battery capacity

Nominal battery capacity

Actual battery capacity

Why not use Wh instead of Ah?

Other measures

1.5.4 Coulombic efficiency [%]

1.5.5 Current [A]

Sign

1.5.6 Specific current, “C” [1/h], [h-1]

1.5.7 Energy [Wh], [J]

Nominal energy

Actual Energy

Effective energy

1.5.8 Specific energy [Wh/kg], [J/kg]

1.5.9 Energy density [Wh/l], [J/l]

1.5.10 Energy efficiency [%]

1.5.11 Power [W]

1.5.12 Specific power [W/kg]

1.5.13 Power density [W/l]

1.5.14 Power efficiency [%]

1.5.15 Capacitance [F]

1.6 Maximum Power Point

1.7 Maximum Power Time

1.7.1 MPT definition

1.7.2 MPT empirical characterization

Timing a discharge cycle

From voltage sag

1.7.3 MPT derivation from specs

From specification data

From discharge curves

1.7.4 Typical values of MPT

1.7.5 MPT conversions

Internal series resistance calculation

Energy efficiency calculation

Voltage sag calculation

1.7.6 Using the MPT

1.8 States

1.8.1 States of alphabet soup

1.8.2 State of Charge (SoC)

Physical cell SoC

Operating cell SoC

String SoC

Array SoC

1.8.3 State of Energy (SoE)

1.8.4 State of Health (SoH)

1.8.5 Other “State of”

State of Function

State of Voltage

State of Power

State of Life

State of Balance

1.8.6 Depth of Discharge (DoD)

1.8.7 Charge Acceptance, Discharge Availability

1.9 Charts

1.9.1 Radar chart

1.9.2 Ragone plot

Examples of Ragone plots

1.9.3 MPT based plots

Examples of MPT based plots

3 Li-ion cells

2.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

2.1.1 Cell definition

2.1.2 Cell failure

2.1.3 Weak cell

2.2 Types of cells

2.2.1 Cell chemistry

LTO

LFP

LCO

NCA

LNO

NMC

LMO

2.2.2 Cell formats

Small cylindrical

Large cylindrical

Large prismatic

Small prismatic

Pouch

2.2.3 Energy vs power cells

2.2.4 Cell modules

2.3 Cell characterization

2.3.1 Perspectives for characterization

2.3.2 Equivalent model

2.3.3 Cell life

Cycle life

Calendar life

2.4 Voltage and SoC

2.4.1 Terminal voltage and Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)

IR drop, voltage sag

Relaxation

Hysteresis

2.4.2 Voltage ranges

2.4.3 Voltage vs SoC curves

Discharge curves

CCCV charging curves

OCV vs SoC curve

Differential OCV vs SoC

2.4.4 Evolution of OCV curves

2.4.5 Cell SoC

2.4.6 Voltage specifications and characteristics

Spec sheet

OCV vs SoC table

2.4.7 Expansion and contraction

Allowing for expansion

2.5 Capacity, energy, and Coulombic efficiency

2.5.1 Capacity

2.5.2 Capacity fade, Cycle life

Minimizing capacity fade, maximizing cell use

Cycle life prolongation

2.5.3 Capacity fade, calendar life

2.5.4 Energy

2.5.5 Energy efficiency

2.5.6 Coulombic efficiency

Life

2.6 Resistance, impedance, maximum power time

2.6.1 Resistance and Maximum Power Time

Nominal DC resistance

Instantaneous DC resistance

Actual resistance

Nominal MPT

Power cells outlasting energy cells

2.6.2 Impedance

2.7 Current, power and self-discharge

2.7.1 Current

Specifications

Cycle life

2.7.2 Power

Power delivered

Self-heating power

2.7.3 Self-discharge current

2.8 Cell usage

2.8.1 Safe Operating Area (SOA)

2.8.2 CCCV charging

2.8.3 Other charging profiles

Pre-conditioning

Three-stage charging

Step charging

Target voltage charging

Algorithms based on cell conditions

2.8.4 Operating current

Continuous and peak current

Application current limits

Maximum power current

2.8.5 Operating voltage

Battery on DC bus

2.8.6 Physical

2.9 Cell selection and procurement

2.9.1 Liars, damn liars, and battery manufacturers

2.9.2 Reading specification sheets

Verification

Spec sheets styles

Cell part number

Voltage

Capacity

Charging limits

Discharging limits

Energy

Power

Temperature

AC Impedance and DC Resistance

Cycle Life

Calendar life

Mass (weight) and Size

Curves

Power curves

2.9.3 Cell sourcing

2.9.4 Second use

Case study: laptop cells

Case study: Nissan Leaf modules

Case study: Chevy Volt modules

4 Cell arrangement

3.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

3.1.1 Basic cell arrangements

3.1.2 Cell arrangement notation

3.1.3 Cell arrangement characteristics

Parallel and series connection

3.1.4 Module arrangement

3.1.5 Operating range

Energy or power battery

Buffer battery

3.2 Series strings

3.2.1 Current in series strings

Charging and discharging

Stopping charging and discharging

Main fuse

Safety disconnect

3.2.2 Voltage in series strings

Cell voltage distribution

Maximum string voltage

3.2.3 Mismatched cells in series strings

3.2.4 String capacity, String SoC

3.2.5 String imbalance

Balanced vs imbalanced

Same capacity, balanced

Same capacity, unbalanced

Different capacity, mid balanced

State of Balance

3.2.6 Optimal balance setpoint

Energy or power battery: Top balanced

Buffer battery: Mid-balanced

Energy / buffer battery

3.2.7 Imbalance detection

3.2.8 Imbalance causes

Self discharge

Cycling

3.2.9 Balancing

Required balancing current

Balancing methods and time

3.2.10 Balancing not required

3.2.11 Over-discharge and voltage reversal

3.2.12 Transitional spikes

Negative spikes

Positive spikes

3.2.13 Charging a series string

Top balanced battery

Mid balanced battery

3.3 Parallel blocks

3.3.1 Voltage in parallel blocks

3.3.2 Current in parallel blocks

3.3.3 Temperature in parallel blocks

3.3.4 Mismatched cells in parallel blocks

3.3.5 Many small cells in parallel vs one large cell

3.3.6 Inrush current upon parallel connection

3.3.7 Charging a parallel block

3.4 Parallel-first

3.4.1 Fuse-per-cell

Individual fuses are required

Individual fuses create more problems than they solve

Individual fuses are a solution in search of a problem

Backwards cell

Deciding whether fuses are required

Detecting a blown fuse

3.4.2 Charging a parallel-first arrangement

3.5 Series-first

3.5.1 Disadvantages of series-first

Higher cost

Worse performance

Equalizing inrush current

Poorly defined evaluation

Unequal balancing

3.5.2 Perceived advantages of series-first

Flexibility

Redundancy

Modularity

3.5.3 Actual advantages of series-first

3.5.4 Voltage and current in series-first

3.5.5 Fuse per string

3.5.6 Mismatched strings, mixing battery types

Mismatched strings

Different types of batteries

3.5.7 Charging a series-first arrangement

3.6 Other arrangements

3.6.1 Complex arrangements

3.6.2 Variable arrangements

3.6.3 Series strings with fuses or resistors

5 Li-ion BMSs

4.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

4.2 The BMS

4.2.1 BMS definition

Not a BMS

A BMS is not optional

A BMS is not a charger

4.2.2 BMS technology

4.2.3 BMS topologies

Wired PCM

Mounted PCM

Centralized

Distributed

Banked

Master / Slave

Distributed Master / Slave

Banked Master / Slave

4.2.4 BMS format

4.2.5 BMS cost

4.3 Analog protector BMS, Protector Circuit Module (PCM)

4.3.1 PCM placement

4.3.2 PCM functionality

Voltage protection

Current protection

Temperature protection

Voltage sense taps

Protector switch

Fuse

Balancing

4.3.3 Protected 18650 batteries

4.3.4 Charger / PCM combo

4.4 Digital protector

Small batteries

Medium batteries

Large batteries

4.5 Digital BMU

4.5.1 Digital BMS states

Power state

Protection State

Contactor state

4.5.2 Digital BMS functions

4.5.3 BMS accessories

4.6 Measurement

4.6.1 Cell voltage measurement

Range

Measurement accuracy and resolution

Measurement rate

Current into cell voltage sense inputs

Fault protector

Banking

Numbering

4.6.2 Additional voltage measurements

4.6.3 Temperature measurement

4.6.4 Current measurement

4.6.5 Other measurements

4.7 Current limits and turn off, warnings and faults

4.7.1 Current limits

Adaptive operating range

4.7.2 Current turn off

4.7.3 Warnings and faults

Cell voltage, temperature, current

Other causes

Crawl home mode

4.8 Balancing

4.8.1 Required balancing current

4.8.2 Balancing technologies: bypass vs charge transfer

Bypass balancing

Charge transfer balancing

4.8.3 Charge transfer topologies

4.8.4 Balancing algorithms

Voltage based, top balancing

SoC based balancing

4.8.5 Charging during top balancing

High balance current

Reduced charger current

Turn charger off and on

4.8.6 Generated heat

4.8.7 Redistribution

Converter power

Redistribution vs. additional cells

Redistribution benefits

4.9 Evaluation

4.9.1 State of Charge evaluation

SoC evaluation methods

4.9.2 Effective capacity evaluation

4.9.3 OCV evaluation

4.9.4 Resistance evaluation

Cell resistance

Battery resistance

4.9.5 State of Health evaluation

Failure prediction

4.9.6 State of Power evaluation

4.9.7 Ground fault evaluation

4.10 Data logging

4.11 Control outputs

4.11.1 Protector switch and precharge control

4.11.2 Thermal management control

4.12 Inputs and outputs

4.12.1 Power supply inputs

4.12.2 Power supply outputs

4.12.3 Analog inputs

4.12.4 Analog outputs

4.12.5 Digital inputs

4.12.6 Logic outputs

4.12.7 Open drain outputs

4.13 Communication links

4.14 Reliability

4.14.1 BMS hardware longevity

Mean Time Between Failures

Failure causes

Serviceability

Warranty

Return policy

4.14.2 BMS software longevity

Software reliability

Continuous operation

Software upgrades

4.14.3 EMI immunity

Interference sources

Internal communication data rates

Line frequency

Switching frequency

Radio frequencies

4.15 BMS selection

Number of cells in series

Minimum cell voltage

Battery physical layout

Cell format

Technology

Special functions

Application

Certifications

4.16 BMS supplier selection

BMS manufacturer longevity

BMS manufacturer location

Tech support

4.17 BMS sourcing

4.17.1 A changing market

4.17.2 Off-the-shelf BMS manufacturers

4.17.3 BMS vendors

PCMs

BMUs

4.17.4 Switching to a different BMS

6 Battery design

5.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

5.2 The battery

5.2.1 Battery definition

5.2.2 Battery use classification

5.2.3 Should you design a battery?

5.2.4 Battery design checklist

Design steps

Establishing application requirements

Create battery specifications

Selection of a design

5.2.5 Avoiding pitfalls

5.2.6 Adding large capacitors

5.2.7 Second use

5.3 Component selection

5.3.1 Talking to suppliers

5.3.2 Cells and BMS

Small run

Volume production

5.3.3 Connectors

Large batteries, signals

Large batteries, power

Small batteries

5.3.4 Other components

5.4 Cell installation and interconnection

5.4.1 Small cylindrical

Physical arrangement

Mounting

Interconnection

Sensing

Cooling

Enclosing

5.4.2 Large Prismatic

Physical arrangement

Mounting

Interconnections

Sensing

Cooling

Enclosing

5.4.3 Pouch

Physical arrangement

Mounting

Interconnection

Sensing

Cooling

Enclosing

5.4.4 Small prismatic

5.4.5 Large cylindrical

5.5 BMS installation

5.5.1 BMU Power supply source

5.6 Sensing

5.6.1 Cell voltage sensing, temperature sensing

Wired BMS

Mated bank boards and PCMs

Distributed cell boards

Banking

Numbering

5.6.2 Current sensing

Resistive current sensing

Hall Effect sensor measurement

Two current sensors

5.7 Communication links

5.7.1 Internal communications

Slave bus

Bank harness

Peripheral bus

5.7.2 External communications

5.7.3 Wired links

SMB

TTL

RS232

USB

LIN bus

RS485

Ethernet

ModBus

CAN bus

5.7.4 Optic fiber

5.7.5 Wireless

Bluetooth

WiFi

5.8 Control

5.8.1 Control inputs

5.8.2 Control outputs

5.8.3 Open drain outputs

5.9 Protection

5.9.1 Protection is required

5.9.2 Protection cannot be based on total battery voltage

CCCV charging

Low voltage cutoff

5.9.3 Protector switch topologies

Dual switch, single port topology

Dual port topology

External switch topology

External control topology

5.9.4 Protector switch components

5.9.5 Solid state protector switch circuits

MOSFETs

Two MOSFETs, single port topology

Two MOSFETs, dual port

5.9.6 Contactor protector switch circuits

Contactors

Two contactors, single port

Two contactors, dual port

Fault contactor

Positive and negative contactors

5.9.7 Main fuse

5.10 Precharge

5.10.1 Inrush current without precharge

5.10.2 Consequences of skipping precharge

EMP

Current

Voltage

5.10.3 Precharge circuit

5.10.4 Precharge components

Precharge resistor

Alternatives to resistor

Precharge relay

5.10.5 Precharge responsibility

5.10.6 Post-discharge

5.11 Battery isolation and ground faults

5.11.1 Battery isolation

The case for battery isolation

When to isolate a battery

Isolated battery in grounded application

Isolating a battery

5.11.2 Ground faults

Types

Causes

Consequences

5.11.3 Automatic ground fault detection

Types

Detection thresholds

Ground fault detection requirement

Ground fault detectors

5.12 Chargers (AC powered)

5.12.1 Charger control

5.12.2 Multiple chargers

Parallel chargers

Series chargers

5.12.3 Charger selection

5.13 Radio noise, EMI

5.13.1 Noise sources

High power switching devices

Transmitters

5.13.2 Noise immunity

Switching converters

Radio transmitters

EMI immunity testing

5.13.3 Emission reduction

5.14 Thermal management

5.14.1 Introduction

5.14.2 Internal heat generation

Estimation

Measurement

5.14.3 Thermal management mechanisms and techniques

5.14.4 Thermal Insulation

5.14.5 Passive heat transfer

5.14.6 Active heat transfer, advection

Forced air ventilation

External air path

Air flow speed

Temperature gradients

Liquid cooling

5.14.7 Internal equalization

5.14.8 Temporary heat storage

Thermal capacity storage

Phase change material storage

5.14.9 Heating

5.14.10 Heat pumping, cooling

5.14.11 Noise reduction

5.15 Mechanical design

5.15.1 Enclosure

5.15.2 Design for service

5.16 Regulatory testing standards

7 Modules and arrays

6.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

6.2 ESS subdivision

6.2.1 “Hey, I have an idea!”

The lead acid legacy

6.2.2 Possible subdivisions

Single battery vs multiple batteries

Single enclosure vs multiple enclosures

6.3 Battery with selectable number of strings in parallel

6.4 Modular battery

Case studies

6.5 Expandable battery

Case studies

6.6 Battery array

6.6.1 Array-capable BMS

6.6.2 Array master

6.6.3 Voltage equalization

6.6.4 Small batteries

Parallel batteries

Series batteries

Series-first batteries

6.7 Ganged batteries

Applications

6.7.1 Parallel ganged batteries, single bus

System operation

Battery description

Operation

6.7.2 Parallel ganged batteries, dual bus

System description

System operation

Battery description

Operation

6.7.3 Series ganged batteries, single bus

6.7.4 Series ganged batteries, dual bus

6.8 Split battery

Case studies

6.8.1 Parallel charging, series discharging

6.8.2 Distributed charging, balance charger

6.9 Li-ion and lead-acid

6.9.1 Lead Acid replacement.

No way to control and stop charging or discharging

Requires the presence of a battery to operate

Same port for charging and discharging

The charger operates autonomously following a profile designed for lead acid

Low voltage power supply for the BMS electronics

6.9.2 Parallel Hybrid L.A. / Li-ion systems

LFP cells

NMC cells

Dangers

Load sharing

6.9.3 Sequential Hybrid L.A. / Li-ion systems

Single bus solution

Isolated lead-acid battery

8 Assembly

7.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

7.2 Safety

7.2.1 Work environment

7.2.2 Tools and conduct

7.2.3 Emergency plan

7.2.4 Landlord and insurance

7.3 Preparation

7.3.1 Harnesses

7.3.2 Cell pre-balancing

Charge cells individually

Energy and power battery, charge cells in parallel

Buffer battery pre-balancing

7.3.3 Terminal preparation

7.4 Assembly

7.4.1 Safety tips

Wire insulation

Fastening

7.4.2 Battery assembly

Single-cell battery, pouch, open assembly

Single cell, small cylindrical

Small multi-cell battery, small cylindrical

Self-balancing scooter battery, small cylindrical cells

Medium sized battery, small cylindrical cells

Small multi-cell battery, pouch

24 V battery, large prismatic cells

EV conversion traction pack, large prismatic cells

Large stationary low voltage battery, large prismatic cells

40 V block, pouch cells

7.4.3 BMS installation

Integrity of electronic assemblies

Wired BMS cell voltage sensing

Distributed BMS cell boards

Banked BMS board

7.5 Gross balancing

7.5.1 Manual balancing

7.5.2 Top balance with a gross balancer

7.6 Initial testing

7.6.1 Battery isolation test

General test procedure

Protector BMSs, powered by the battery, no data port

Same as above, with data port

Centralized BMU, powered by the battery

Same as above, powered externally

Wired slave, powered by the cells

Same as above, powered externally

Distributed BMS

Distributed master/slave BMS

7.6.2 Basic electrical test

7.7 Configuration

7.8 Functional testing

7.9 Delivery

7.9.1 Talking to the end user

7.9.2 Transportation

9 Dysfunctions

8.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

8.1.1 Troubleshooting vs. repair

8.1.2 Resources

8.2 Cell and battery damage

8.2.1 Cell damage

8.2.2 Disconnected cells and taps

Open row connection

Open tap

Disconnected cell

Disconnected cell and tap

Disconnected row

8.3 BMS damage

8.3.1 Sensing damage - disconnected from cell

Before installation

Miswired cell voltage sensing

Installing to a battery that is not completely disconnected from anything else

Connection opens between cells

8.3.2 Sensing damage -Noise

Tap wires are antennas

Voltage across bus bars

8.3.3 Sensing damage - Transitional spikes

Negative spikes

Positive spikes

BMS sensitivity to over-voltages

Problem reduction

8.3.4 Sensing damage - cell voltage

Cell voltage reversal

Cell over-voltage

8.3.5 Other BMS damage

Shorts circuits

Power supply inputs and outputs

Driver outputs

Relay dry contacts

Communication ports

Signal inputs

Mechanical damage

8.4 Protector switch damage

High MOSFET temperature

Multiple batteries in series

Shorted charging port in a dual port battery

Contactor

Precharge resistor

8.5 Power up troubleshooting

8.5.1 No BMS power

8.5.2 BMS power cycles constantly

8.5.3 Warnings and faults troubleshooting

8.5.4 Current limits troubleshooting

8.6 Measurements troubleshooting

8.6.1 Cell voltage troubleshooting

8.6.2 Wired BMS troubleshooting

Missing bank

Slowly drifting cell voltage reading, full scale or 0 V

8.6.3 Distributed BMS troubleshooting

All banks are missing

One bank is missing all the time

Missing bank in the presence of noise

Missing line of cell boards

Missing cell board

Cell missing in the presence of noise

Doesn't report for awhile, after the contactor closes

Extra cells

One board reports minimum or maximum voltage

8.6.4 Battery voltage troubleshooting

8.6.5 Temperature troubleshooting

8.6.6 Current troubleshooting

8.7 Mismatched cell voltages troubleshooting

8.7.1 Identify the cause

8.7.2 Address the cause

#1 Not balancing

#2 Incorrect measurement

#3 Low capacity

#4 String balance

8.8 Data evaluation troubleshooting

8.8.1 State of Charge troubleshooting

8.8.2 Actual capacity troubleshooting

8.8.3 Actual resistance troubleshooting

8.8.4 State of Health troubleshooting

8.9 CAN bus troubleshooting

8.9.1 No communications

Check the configuration

Ohmmeter testing

Voltmeter testing

CAN adapter testing

8.9.2 Poor noise immunity

Troubleshooting

Minimize EMI sensitivity

Minimize EMI emissions

8.9.3 Poor data throughput

8.10 Troubleshooting other communications

8.10.1 Windows GUI troubleshooting

RS232

8.10.2 Command line terminal

8.10.3 Slave communications

8.11 Ground faults troubleshooting

8.12 Troubleshooting inputs and outputs

8.12.1 Digital inputs troubleshooting

8.12.2 Analog inputs troubleshooting

8.12.3 Logic outputs troubleshooting

8.12.4 Relay outputs troubleshooting

8.12.5 Analog outputs troubleshooting

8.12.6 Open drain drivers troubleshooting

8.13 Troubleshooting power circuits

8.13.1 Contactors troubleshooting

8.13.2 Precharge troubleshooting

8.14 Troubleshooting fault messages

8.14.1 Killing the messenger

8.14.2 Battery shutdown, high cell voltage

Vehicle, hard braking, down a long hill

Stationary, battery is full

8.14.3 Battery shutdown, low cell voltage

Vehicle, high acceleration, up a long hill

Stationary, battery is empty

8.14.4 Battery shutdown, charge over-current

Charging was OK at the time

Charging was not OK at the time

8.14.5 Battery shutdown, discharge over-current

Discharging was OK at the time

Discharging was not OK at the time

8.14.6 Isolation fault

False positive

False negative

8.15 Repair

8.15.1 Safety procedures

8.15.2 Cell replacement

8.15.3 Gross balancing in the field

8.15.4 BMS repair

Cell board replacement

Bank board replacement

Component level repair

11 Small batteries

1.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

Applications classification

1.2 Devices

AC adapters and chargers

1.3 Internal battery

Options

High power battery connector

Low power battery connector

Mechanical design

Procurement

1.3.1 Single-cell internal battery

Topologies

Permanently connected cell

Unprotected battery

Just switch in battery

Standalone battery

Standalone SMB battery

Topology recommendations

1.3.2 Multi-cell internal battery

Topologies

Unprotected battery

Standalone battery

Standalone SMB battery

Topology recommendations

1.4 External battery

Options

Battery connector

Mechanical design

Authentication

1.4.1 Single-cell external battery

Topologies

Unprotected battery

Battery with just switch

Battery with just a BMU

Standalone battery

Standalone SMB battery

Dual-port standalone battery

Dual-port SMB battery

Topology recommendations

1.4.2 Multi-cell external battery

Topologies

Unprotected battery

Unprotected with balancer

Unprotected with “fuel gauge”

Batteries with PCM

BMS without voltage taps

Topology recommendations

1.4.3 Troubleshooting

1.4.4 Reverse engineering

No voltage

Just the battery voltage

Battery and cell voltages

1.5 Applications

1.5.1 Power banks

Operation

Characteristics

Design

1.5.2 Rechargeable AA battery

1.6 Battery design

1.6.1 Cell selection

Single-cell battery

Multi-cell battery

1.6.2 BMS

PCM selection

Single cell, no explicit BMS

System Management Bus

1.6.3 Thermal design

Cooling

Thermistor

Thermal fuse

1.7 System integration

1.7.1 AC / DC switchover

Parallel circuit

Switchover circuit

12 Large, low voltage batteries

2.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

Applications classification

2.2 Devices

2.2.1 Power sources

Alternator, voltage regulator

2.2.2 Loads

2.2.3 Power converters

Current limited power supply

Charger with DC input

Inverter

Invergers (charger / inverter, “combi”)

Transverter

2.2.4 Off-grid, Grid-tied, Grid-interactive

Single “leader”

Grid-interactive inverter

Multiple inverters in a system

2.2.5 Solar

Solar inverter

Tomorrow's solar charge controller

2.2.6 Battery monitor

2.3 System topologies

DC topology (a)

DC in, AC out topology (aa)

AC in topology (b)

AC in, AC out topology (bb)

Bidirectional AC topology (c)

Bidirectional AC, AC out topology (cc)

AC & DC in topology (d)

AC & DC in, AC out topology (dd)

DC in & Bidirectional AC topology (e)

DC in & Bidirectional AC, AC out topology (ee)

2.4 Telecom applications

2.4.1 Additional devices

Base Transreceiver Station (BTS)

System controller

Automatic transfer switch

2.4.2 Technical considerations

Up-time requirement

Strategies

Minimum battery capacity

Typical sizing for battery, PV panels, genset

End of battery charge

Grounding

Arrays

RF exposure

2.4.3 Off-grid site, DC powered, no AC loads

2.4.4 Off grid site, DC powered with AC loads

2.4.5 AC powered site, no AC loads

2.4.6 AC powered site with AC loads

2.4.7 AC and DC powered site, no AC loads

2.4.8 AC and DC powered site with AC loads

2.5 Residential applications

2.5.1 Additional devices

Inverger for residential use

2.5.2 Technical considerations

Back feeding to the grid and islanding

Benefits

Low voltage DC vs High voltage DC

Invergers and solar charge controllers with Li-ion batteries

SMA Sunny Island

Load management

Arrays

2.5.3 Battery-less generation

2.5.4 Off-grid tiny house

2.5.5 Off-grid house

2.5.6 On-grid, back-up power

2.5.7 On-grid, AC-coupled solar

2.5.8 On-grid, DC-coupled solar

2.6 Marine house power applications

2.6.1 Terminology

2.6.2 Additional devices

Shore power

Shore power corrosion detector

Isolation transformer

Galvanic isolator

Solar, hydro and wind generators

AC vs DC genset

Battery Isolator

Voltage Sensing Relay (VSR)

Current limiting relay

Battery combiner switch

Battery equalizer

2.6.3 Technical considerations

DC Grounding

AC Grounding

Corrosion of propeller or metal hull

Corrosion of electrical components

Fuses

Ignition protection

Current limitation in charging sources

Voltage limitation in charging sources

Reserve capacity

Communications

Multiple batteries

Control freaks

Yacht state

Lead acid vs Li-ion

Off-the shelf Li-ion batteries

Custom Li-ion batteries

Battery location

2.6.4 Yacht wiring, single port BMS

Buses

BMS

Shore power

AC genset

AC loads

DC loads

Charging

Grounding

2.6.5 Yacht wiring, dual port BMS

Skipping the diodes

2.7 Recreational vehicle (RV)applications

2.7.1 Terminology

2.7.2 Additional devices

Shore power

Generator

Inverter

Automatic Transfer Switch

Batteries

Alternator

Charger

Inverger

Battery selector

Solar panels

Wind generator

DC fuse box and loads

AC breaker panel and loads

Refrigerator

Combo boxes

2.7.3 Technical considerations

Electrical systems

Battery isolation

2.7.4 Typical RV wiring

2.8 Electrical Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

2.8.1 Long-haul trucks

2.8.2 Utility trucks

2.8.3 Aviation

Airliner

Small aircraft

Ground power units

2.9 Other applications

2.9.1 Uninterruptible Power Supply

2.9.2 Microgrid

2.9.3 Engine starter battery

Charging SLI batteries

Li-ion starter batteries

Integrated Li-ion battery design

Super-capacitor starter batteries

2.9.4 Battery modules

2.10 Strategies for battery shut-down

2.10.1 Avoid shut down

Temperature

Over-current

Over-voltage, balanced battery

Over-voltage, unbalanced battery, increase balancing current

Over-voltage, unbalanced battery, decrease charging current

Under-voltage

2.10.2 Shut-down disruption mitigation

Back-up power

Auxiliary storage on DC bus

Independent control of charging and discharging

2.10.3 Recovery from discharge disable

Auxiliary storage on DC bus

Dual port battery

Auxiliary power supply from battery

Auxiliary power supply from sun, grid

2.10.4 Recovery from complete shut-down

2.11 Battery technology

2.11.1 Safety

Isolation

Fuse

Circuit breakers

Tap wires, thermistors

2.11.2 Grounding

2.11.3 BMS power supply

2.11.4 Protector switch, precharge

2.11.5 Generic BMS

2.11.6 Stand-by voltage on DC bus

Low voltage supply on DC bus circuit

Power pulse when charging source returns circuit

Power pulse on a regular basis circuit

2.11.7 Specialized BMS

2.12 System integration

2.12.1 External protection switches

2.12.2 External control protection

2.12.3 Communication links

Physical and data layer

Application layer

2.13 BMS selection

2.13.1 Analog protectors (“PCMs”)

2.13.2 Digital protectors

2.13.3 Digital BMUs

2.13.4 Battery array BMSs

13 Traction batteries

3.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

3.2 Technical considerations

3.2.1 Voltage range

3.2.2 Operating modes

3.2.3 Stopped on the railway tracks

3.2.4 On-board renewables powered vehicles

Solar powered vehicles

Wind powered vehicles

Over-unity, perpetual motion

3.3 Devices

3.3.1 VCU

BMS communications

VCU acting as a BMS

3.3.2 Charger

Charger selection

Charger connection

Charger control

3.3.3 Traction system

Traction quadrants

Motors and drivers

Reverse with DC motor

Speed control

3.3.4 DC-DC converters

3.3.5 Displays

Analog SoC meter

Alphanumeric LCD

Sender emulation

3.4 Traction topologies

3.4.1 Battery-less Electric Vehicle

3.4.2 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

3.4.3 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

Battery-less series HEV

Battery HEV

3.4.4 Parallel HEV

3.4.5 Plug-in hybrid (PHEV)

3.5 Unmanned applications

3.5.1 Robots

Warehouse robots

Hazard robots

3.5.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

BMS

Battery

Charging

3.6 Light EV applications

3.6.1 Personal transporters

3.6.2 E-bikes

3.6.3 Go-carts

3.7 Small passenger EV applications

BMS selection

3.7.1 Motorcycle

Conversions

3.7.2 Snowmobiles

3.7.3 Golf carts

Battery

Motor and driver

Power circuit

3.7.4 Commuter EV

Chances of success

Technology

Case study: solar micro-car

3.7.5 Auto-rickshaws

Case study: Kathmandu

3.8 Small industrial applications

3.8.1 Forklifts

Li-ion forklifts

Single port battery design

Dual port battery design

3.8.2 Lawn mowers

3.8.3 Micro pick-up trucks

3.9 Passenger car applications

3.9.1 Technical considerations

Battery specifications

12 V network

Contactor protector switch, precharge

Contactor control

HEV power circuit

BEV power circuit

V2G inverger

3.9.2 BMU selection

3.9.3 Project types

EV conversions

Hybrid conversions

Production passenger vehicle

3.9.4 Charging station (EVSE)

EVSE standards and connectors

Communications

SAE J1772

EU type2, SCAME

CHAdeMO

3.10 Racing applications

3.10.1 Dragstrip racing

3.10.2 Land speed record

3.10.3 Racetrack

3.10.4 Formula races

Hybrid-in-Progress and electric

3.10.5 Solar race vehicles

3.10.6 Solar speed vehicles

3.11 Public transportation

3.11.1 Personal Rapid Transit (PRT)

Case study: Spartan Superway

3.11.2 Electric trains

Monorails

3.11.3 Diesel trains

3.11.4 Vactrain, Hyperloop

Hyperloop concept

Space-X Hyperloop contest

Round test tube

3.11.5 Buses

3.12 Heavy duty applications

3.12.1 Example applications

3.12.2 Technical considerations

Battery

BMS

Chargers

3.13 Off-land applications

3.13.1 Marine traction

Low voltage

High voltage

Battery design

3.13.2 Submarines

Oil

Hard encasing

Cells

Electronics

3.13.3 Aircraft

3.14 Battery technology

3.14.1 Sensing

Current sensing

Temperature sensing

3.14.2 Safety

Ground isolation

Galvanic isolation

Safety disconnect

3.14.3 Fuses

Main fuse

Charger fuse

Auxiliary load fuses

3.14.4 Solid state protector switch

Single vs dual port

Precharge

3.14.5 Power supply

3.14.6 Mechanical design

Design for high vibration

Design for accidents

Environmental

3.15 System integration

3.15.1 12 V network

3.15.2 24, 36 and 48 V systems

3.15.3 CAN bus

Broadcast messages

Request / response messages

J1939

OBD II

Messages to other devices

3.15.4 LIN bus

3.15.5 Power wiring

HV cable

Interlock

14 High voltage stationary batteries

4.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

Applications classification

4.2 Devices

4.2.1 Inverter

Battery voltage for AC voltage

Inverter circuit

Inverter output

Isolation

4.2.2 Inverger

Bidirectionality

4.3 Utility applications

4.3.1 Technology

Demand period

Topology

Battery characteristics

4.3.2 Public utility services

Stacked Services

Adoption year

4.3.3 Private utility services

Arbitrage

Energy service

Coordination with the utility

4.4 Microgrid applications

Types

Generation

Transmission

Loads

Storage

Grid

Control

4.5 Large customer applications

4.5.1 Services overview

4.5.2 ESS topologies

On-line ESS topology

Stand-by ESS topology

Hybrid ESS topology

Delta conversion ESS topology

Grid-interactive ESS topology

4.5.3 Power Reliability service

UPS design

4.5.4 Retail Energy Time-Shift service

4.5.5 Demand Charge Management service

4.5.6 Power quality service

Power company's perspective

Customer's perspective

Power quality ESS

ESS design

4.6 Other applications

4.6.1 Residential applications

4.6.2 Off grid applications

4.7 High voltage design

4.7.1 Breakdown voltage

4.7.2 Clearance and creepage

Minimum distance between conductors

Solutions

4.7.3 Breaking up the voltage

Subdivision into low voltage modules

Battery disconnect

Isolation testing with mid-pack contactors

4.7.4 Sensing

Cell voltage sensing

Pack voltage sensing

Current sensing

Temperature sensing

4.8 Battery technology

4.8.1 Cell selection

Energy batteries

Power batteries

Buffer batteries

Very high power

4.8.2 High power circuits

Fusing

Protector switch

Precharge

4.8.3 Power supply

4.8.4 Environmental

4.8.5 Mechanical design

Blind-mate modules in a rack

Front-wired modules in a rack

Shelves of cells

Capacitance to earth ground

4.9 System integration

4.9.1 System grounding and fault testing

4.9.2 Communications

4.9.3 Control system architecture

4.9.4 Grid back-feed

4.10 Battery arrays

4.10.1 Arrangement

Parallel arrangement

Series arrangement

Parallel and series arrangement

Split battery

4.10.2 BMS topology

4.11 BMS selection

15 Accidents

5.1 Introduction

Tidbits

Orientation

5.2 Safety

5.2.1 Thermal runaway

5.2.2 Emergency procedures

5.3 Case studies

5.3.1 Automotive accidents

PHEV conversion company

Rocker

5.3.2 Marine accidents

Racing yacht T.

Catamaran M.F.

Luxury Yacht L.

5.3.3 Aviation accidents

Dreamliner

5.4 Lawsuits

Avoid getting sued

If about to be sued

If actual sued

Appendix to volume 1

A.1 Preface

A.2 Fundamental concepts

A.2.1 Short Discharge Time

A.2.2 But, but, but... electron flow

A.2.3 International dictionary

A.3 Li-ion cells

A.3.1 Cell chemistry

A.3.2 Lithium-metal secondary cells

Lithium metal

Solid electrolyte

All-solid-state cells

Lithium air

A.3.3 Parameters that affect OCV

A.3.4 EIS & Nyquist plots

Resistance

A.3.5 Coulombic efficiency

A.3.6 Self-discharge current measurement

A.3.7 Energy measurement

A.3.8 What should be in the specs

The “ideal” spec sheet

A.3.9 Li-ion capacitors (LIC)

A.3.10 Li-ion cell directory

A.4 Cell arrangement

A.4.1 Kim arrangement

A.5 BMS

A.5.1 Charge transfer balancing electronics

Shared transformer

Single DC-DC converter

A.5.2 BMS isolation

A.5.3 Designing your own BMS

A.5.4 I don't need no stinking BMS

A.5.5 Off-the-shelf BMS companies directory

A.6 Battery design

A.6.1 Isolation loss detection

Static DC isolation loss tests

Dynamic DC isolation loss tests

AC isolation loss tests

A.6.2 Fault current detection

A.7 Modules and arrays

A.8 Assembly

A.8.1 Test fixtures

Cell voltage sense harness

Cable test fixture

Battery test fixture

A.9 Dysfunctions

A.9.1 BMS damage from excessive voltages

A.9.2 BMS immunity to excessive voltages

Appendix to volume 2

B.1 Batteries with capacitors

B.1.1 Directly in parallel

B.1.2 Through DC-DC converter

B.1.3 With DC motor

B.2 Motors

B.2.1 Motor characteristics

Format

Magnetics

Brushed vs brushless

Synchronous vs asynchronous

B.2.2 Drive waveform

DC motors

Rectangular drive motors

Trapezoidal drive motors

AC motors

Universal motor

B.2.3 Motor classification

B.3 Motor drivers

B.3.1 DC motor controllers

PM motor drivers

DC sepex motor controllers

B.3.2 Stepper motors

B.3.3 BLDC motor drivers

B.3.4 AC motor drivers

AC motor inverters

Variable frequency drives

B.4 Invergers

B.4.1 SMA Sunny Island

B.5 Chargers

B.5.1 High power chargers

B.6 DC-DC converters